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Now we come to the most popular application of the diode: rectification. Simply defined, rectification is the conversion of alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC). This involves a device that only allows one-way flow of electrons. As we have seen, this is exactly what a semiconductor diode does. The simplest kind of rectifier circuit is the half-wave rectifier. It only allows one half of an AC waveform to pass through to the load. (Figure below) Half-wave rectifier circuit. For most power applications, half-wave rectification is insufficient for the task. The harmonic content of the rectifier’s output waveform is very large and consequently difficult to filter. Furthermore, the AC power source only supplies power to the load one half every full cycle, meaning that half of its capacity is unused. Half-wave rectification is, however, a very simple way to reduce power to a resistive load. Some two-position lamp dimmer switches apply full AC power to the lamp filament for “full” brightness and then half-wave rectify it for a lesser light output. (Figure below) Half-wave rectifier application: Two level lamp dimmer.
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Minimum System ATMega 8535,16,32 Minimum system ATmega 8535/16/32 schematic circuit that is integrated with RS232 serial communication. Minimum System is a microcontroller circuit that used to work. This circuit usually consists of: 1. Crystal = to generate pulse 2. a series reset = to do the “Restart” work microcontroller Components that can be used as input and output such as: 1. display = LCD, dot matrix, seven segment, etc. 2. input = keypad, push button, etc. Schematics above are the minimum system that has been integrated with RS232 serial communication. with the RS232, then the minimum system is ready to be used to communicate between the microcontroller to the computer, or microcontroller to microcontroller.
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- 2
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- avr atmega
- boards
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(و 23 مورد دیگر)
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potentiometer as a sensor of water level elevation When the water level changes, the float will drop following the water level.this causes the potentiometer rotates.This system is designed to detect water levels from 0 to 10m.when the water level is 0 meters, then the potentiometer resistance is minimal (0 ohms) and maximum (10 kohm) when the water level = 10 m. Changes in these constraints will lead to changes in the potentiometer output voltage.so that, if used linear potentiometer type, then the water level changes will be proportional to the potentiometer output voltage.to be more accurate, use an amplifier to strengthen this voltage and then processed by a microcontroller. The use of a potentiometer for controlling the position is quite practical because it requires only one excitation voltage and usually does not require complicated signal processing.Use of potentiometers in particular weaknesses are: Rapid wear due to friction Noise, especially when changing position and when there is loose contact Susceptible to corrosion Sensitive to impurities linear potentiometer as a sensor
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- level sensor
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In this section, we describe the overall architecture of the Atmel AVR ATmega16.We begin with an introduction to the concept of the reduced instruction set computer (RISC) and briefly describe the Atmel Assembly Language Instruction Set. A brief introduction is warranted because we will be programming mainly in C throughout the course of the book. We then provide a detailed description of the ATmega16 hardware architecture. Reduced Instruction Set Computer Microcontroller operation is controlled by a user-written program interacting with the fixed hardware architecture resident within the microcontroller. A specific microcontroller architecture can be categorized as accumulator-based, register-based, stack-based, or a pipeline architecture. The Atmel ATmega16 is a register-based architecture. In this type of architecture, both operands of an operation are stored in registers collocated with the central processing unit (CPU). This means that before an operation is performed, the computer loads all necessary data for the operation to its CPU. The result of the operation is also stored in a register. During program execution, the CPU interacts with the register set and minimizes slowermemory accesses.Memory accesses are typically handled as background operations. Coupled with the register-based architecture is an instruction set based on the RISC concept. A RISC processor is equipped with a complement of very simple and efficient basic operations. More complex instructions are built up from these very basic operations. This allows for efficient program operation. The Atmel ATmega16 is equipped with 131 RISC-type instructions. Most can be executed in a single clock cycle. The ATmega16 is also equipped with additional hardware to allow for the multiplication operation in two clock cycles. In many other microcontroller architectures, multiplication typically requires many more clock cycles. For additional information on the RISC architecture, the interested reader is referred to Hennessy and Patterson [3]. The Atmel ATmega16 [2] is equipped with 32 general purpose 8-bit registers that are tightly coupled to the processor’s arithmetic logic unit within the CPU. Also, the processor is designed following the HarvardArchitecture format.That is, it is equipped with separate, dedicated memories and buses for program and data information. The register-based Harvard Architecture coupled with the RISC-based instruction set allows for fast and efficient program execution and allows the processor to complete an assembly language instruction every clock cycle. Atmel indicates the ATmega16 can execute 16 million instructions per second when operating at a clock speed of 16 MHz.
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- data sheet
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